Agustin Campos Arenas Pensamiento Critico.pdf
Introduction
Critical thinking is a term that has been widely used and discussed in various fields and contexts, especially in education, science, and society. But what does it mean exactly? And why is it so important?
In simple words, critical thinking can be defined as the ability to analyze, evaluate, and reason logically and creatively about information, arguments, and problems. It involves applying various skills, dispositions, and knowledge to reach well-founded judgments and decisions. It also entails being open-minded, curious, and reflective about one's own thinking processes and assumptions.
Critical thinking is important because it enables us to cope with the complexity and uncertainty of the modern world. It helps us to develop our own opinions and perspectives based on evidence and logic, rather than relying on authority or tradition. It also empowers us to act effectively and responsibly in different situations and domains.
In this article, we will explore the concept of critical thinking, its development, and its evaluation. We will also provide some practical tips and examples to help you improve your own critical thinking skills.
The concept of critical thinking
The origins and evolution of critical thinking
The term \"critical thinking\" was coined by the philosopher John Dewey in the early 20th century. However, the idea of using reason and evidence to examine claims and arguments can be traced back to ancient times. For instance, the Greek philosopher Socrates was known for his method of questioning everything and challenging the opinions of others. He believed that the unexamined life was not worth living.
Throughout history, many thinkers have contributed to the development of critical thinking as a discipline and a practice. Some notable examples are:
Rene Descartes, who proposed a method of systematic doubt and verification to find certain truths.
Francis Bacon, who advocated for an empirical approach to science based on observation and experimentation.
Thomas More, who wrote a utopian novel that criticized the political and social conditions of his time.
Immanuel Kant, who argued that human beings have a moral duty to use their reason autonomously and universally.
John Stuart Mill, who defended the principle of liberty and individual rights against tyranny and oppression.
Richard Paul, who developed a model of critical thinking that emphasizes intellectual standards, elements, and traits.
Matthew Lipman, who created a philosophy for children program that fosters critical thinking through dialogue and inquiry.
The main characteristics and elements of critical thinking
Critical thinking is not a single skill or ability that can be easily defined or measured. Rather, it is a complex and dynamic process that involves several interrelated components. According to Richard Paul's model, these components are:
Skills: These are the cognitive abilities that enable us to perform various mental operations on information. Some examples are:
Interpretation: Understanding the meaning and significance of data, facts, statements, or situations.
Analysis: Breaking down complex information into simpler parts or categories.
Evaluation: Judging the credibility, accuracy, relevance, or validity of information or arguments.
Inference: Drawing logical conclusions or implications from information or arguments.
Explanation: Communicating clearly and convincingly one's own reasoning or point of view.
Self-regulation: Monitoring and correcting one's own thinking processes or biases.
Dispositions: These are the attitudes or habits of mind that motivate us to engage in critical thinking. Some examples are:
Critical curiosity: Being interested in finding out more about a topic or issue.
Skepticism: Being doubtful or questioning about the claims or arguments of others.
Open-mindedness: Being willing to consider different perspectives or alternatives.
Fair-mindedness: Being impartial and respectful towards the opinions or views of others.
Intellectual humility: Being aware of the limits or gaps of one's own knowledge or understanding.
Intellectual courage: Being ready to face challenges or difficulties in one's own thinking or beliefs.
Knowledge: This is the information or understanding that we have about a topic or issue. It can be divided into two types:
Domain-specific knowledge: This is the factual or conceptual knowledge that relates to a specific field or discipline.
Cross-domain knowledge: This is the general or procedural knowledge that applies to various fields or disciplines.
All these components interact with each other in different contexts and situations. For example,
The multidisciplinary and action-oriented nature of critical thinking
Critical thinking is not limited to a specific domain or discipline. It can be applied to any topic or issue that requires careful and systematic thinking. For example, we can use critical thinking to:
Understand the causes and effects of global warming.
Evaluate the pros and cons of different political systems.
Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of a business plan.
Compare and contrast different artistic styles or movements.
Solve a mathematical problem or puzzle.
Critical thinking is also not just a passive or theoretical activity. It has practical and ethical implications for our actions and decisions. For example, we can use critical thinking to:
Make informed and rational choices in our personal or professional lives.
Develop creative and innovative solutions to problems or challenges.
Communicate effectively and persuasively with others.
Collaborate and cooperate with diverse people and groups.
Respect and promote human rights and social justice.
Therefore, critical thinking is a valuable and versatile skill that can enhance our learning, work, and citizenship.
The development of critical thinking skills
The role of education in fostering critical thinking
One of the main goals of education is to prepare students for the demands and challenges of the 21st century. This requires developing not only their knowledge and skills, but also their critical thinking abilities. According to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, critical thinking is one of the four essential skills for learning and innovation, along with creativity, communication, and collaboration.
However, developing critical thinking skills is not an easy or automatic process. It requires deliberate and sustained instruction and practice. According to Bloom's taxonomy, critical thinking skills are part of the higher-order cognitive domain, which involves applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating knowledge. These skills are more complex and challenging than the lower-order cognitive domain, which involves remembering and understanding knowledge.
Therefore, educators need to design and implement effective strategies and methods to foster critical thinking skills among their students. Some of these strategies and methods are:
: Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009). P21 Framework Definitions. Retrieved from www.p21.org/storage/documents/P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf
Using inquiry-based learning, which involves posing questions, problems, or scenarios that stimulate students' curiosity and exploration.
Using problem-based learning, which involves engaging students in solving authentic and ill-structured problems that require critical thinking and collaboration.
Using project-based learning, which involves assigning students complex and meaningful tasks that require them to plan, research, create, and present a product or solution.
Using case-based learning, which involves presenting students with realistic and relevant cases or scenarios that require them to apply their knowledge and skills to analyze and solve them.
Using cooperative learning, which involves grouping students in small teams that work together to achieve a common goal or complete a task.
Using Socratic questioning, which involves asking students open-ended and probing questions that challenge their assumptions and reasoning.
Using metacognitive strategies, which involve teaching students how to monitor and regulate their own thinking processes and strategies.
Using feedback and assessment, which involve providing students with timely and constructive feedback and assessment that help them improve their critical thinking performance.
The main techniques and strategies for enhancing critical thinking
Besides the role of education, developing critical thinking skills also depends on the individual's own effort and practice. There are many techniques and strategies that can help anyone improve their critical thinking abilities. Some of these techniques and strategies are:
Clarifying the purpose and goal of one's thinking. This involves identifying what one wants to achieve or accomplish by thinking critically about a topic or issue.
Defining the problem or question clearly and precisely. This involves stating the problem or question in a way that is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound.
Gathering relevant and reliable information. This involves collecting and selecting information from various sources that are credible, accurate, relevant, and current.
Organizing and synthesizing information. This involves arranging and integrating information in a logical and coherent way that supports one's purpose and goal.
Generating and evaluating alternatives. This involves brainstorming and generating different possible solutions or answers to the problem or question, and then evaluating them based on criteria and standards.
Drawing conclusions and making decisions. This involves choosing the best solution or answer based on the evidence and reasoning, and then taking action accordingly.
Communicating and presenting one's thinking. This involves expressing and explaining one's reasoning or point of view clearly and convincingly to others.
Reflecting on one's thinking. This involves reviewing and evaluating one's own thinking processes and outcomes, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and making improvements as needed.
The challenges and barriers for developing critical thinking
Despite its importance and benefits, developing critical thinking skills is not without challenges and barriers. Some of these challenges and barriers are:
Lack of motivation or interest. Some people may not see the value or relevance of critical thinking for their personal or professional lives. They may also lack the curiosity or enthusiasm to explore new ideas or perspectives.
Lack of time or resources. Some people may not have enough time or resources to engage in critical thinking activities. They may also face competing demands or pressures that prevent them from focusing on critical thinking.
Lack of guidance or support. Some people may not have access to adequate guidance or support from educators, mentors, peers, or experts who can help them develop their critical thinking skills. They may also lack feedback or assessment that can help them improve their critical thinking performance.
Lack of confidence or self-efficacy. Some people may not believe in their own ability to think critically or to overcome difficulties or challenges. They may also fear failure or criticism from others.
Lack of practice or experience. Some people may not have enough opportunities or exposure to practice or apply their critical thinking skills in different contexts or situations. They may also lack experience in dealing with complex or ill-structured problems that require critical thinking.
Cognitive biases or fallacies. Some people may be influenced by cognitive biases or fallacies that affect their judgment or reasoning. These are errors or flaws in thinking that result from heuristics, emotions, stereotypes, assumptions, or beliefs.
and resources to develop and practice critical thinking skills. It is also important to be aware of one's own thinking processes and assumptions, and to challenge them with evidence and logic.
The evaluation of critical thinking
The criteria and standards for assessing critical thinking
Evaluating critical thinking is not a simple or straightforward task. It requires defining and applying criteria and standards that can measure the quality and effectiveness of critical thinking. According to Richard Paul and Linda Elder, there are two types of criteria and standards for assessing critical thinking:
Universal intellectual standards: These are the general and cross-disciplinary standards that apply to any type of thinking. They are used to judge the clarity, accuracy, relevance, logic, depth, breadth, significance, precision, and fairness of one's thinking. Some examples are:
Clarity: The thinking is expressed in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
Accuracy: The thinking is based on facts or evidence that are true and correct.
Relevance: The thinking is related to the purpose or goal of one's thinking.
Logic: The thinking is consistent and coherent, and follows the rules of reasoning.
Depth: The thinking addresses the complexity and nuances of the issue or problem.
Breadth: The thinking considers different perspectives or alternatives.
Significance: The thinking focuses on the most important or relevant aspects of the issue or problem.
Precision: The thinking provides specific and detailed information or examples.
Fairness: The thinking is impartial and respectful of different views or opinions.
Domain-specific intellectual standards: These are the specific and disciplinary standards that apply to a particular field or domain. They are used to judge the validity, reliability, credibility, originality, usefulness, or applicability of one's thinking. Some examples are:
Validity: The thinking is supported by sound arguments or reasons.
Reliability: The thinking is consistent and reproducible over time or across situations.
Credibility: The thinking is based on sources or authorities that are trustworthy and reputable.
Originality: The thinking is creative and innovative, and adds new value or insight to the issue or problem.
Usefulness: The thinking is practical and relevant, and solves or addresses the issue or problem.
Applicability: The thinking can be transferred or generalized to other contexts or situations.
To evaluate critical thinking effectively, it is important to use both types of criteria and standards, and to apply them consistently and rigorously.
The main methods and tools for measuring critical thinking
Measuring critical thinking is not an easy or straightforward task either. It requires using appropriate and valid methods and tools that can capture the various components and aspects of critical thinking. According to the literature, there are three main types of methods and tools for measuring critical thinking:
Objective tests: These are standardized and structured tests that use multiple-choice, true-false, or matching questions to assess one's knowledge or skills in critical thinking. Some examples are:
The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal: This is a widely used test that measures one's ability to interpret, analyze, evaluate, infer, explain, and self-regulate information or arguments.
The California Critical Thinking Skills Test: This is another widely used test that measures one's ability to analyze, evaluate, infer, deduct, and induct information or arguments.
The Cornell Critical Thinking Test: This is a test that measures one's ability to identify assumptions, evaluate evidence, avoid fallacies, and draw conclusions.
Performance tasks: These are authentic and complex tasks that require one to apply one's knowledge and skills in critical thinking to solve a problem or complete a product. Some examples are:
The Collegiate Learning Assessment: This is a performance task that requires one to analyze and evaluate a set of documents related to a real-world issue or problem, and then write an essay that presents one's reasoning and recommendations.
The Ennis-Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test: This is a performance task that requires one to write an essay that criticizes or defends a given argument.
The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment: This is a performance task that requires one to complete a scenario-based task that involves applying various critical thinking skills.
Self-report measures: These are surveys or questionnaires that ask one to rate or report one's own perceptions or behaviors related to critical thinking. Some examples are:
The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory: This is a self-report measure that assesses one's disposition or attitude towards critical thinking.
The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire: This is a self-report measure that assesses one's motivation and learning strategies, including critical thinking strategies.
The Reflective Judgment Interview: This is a self-report measure that assesses one's level of reflective judgment, which is the ability to reason about complex and uncertain issues.
To measure critical thinking effectively, it is important to use a combination of different methods and tools, and to consider their strengths and limitations.
: Watson G., Glaser E.M., (1980). Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. The Psychological Corporation. : Facione P.A., (1990). The California Critical Thinking Skills Test - College Level. California Academic Press. : Ennis R.H., Millman J., (1985). Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X. Midwest Publications. : Shavelson R.J., et al., (2008). On the Impact of Curriculum-Embedded Formative Assessment on Learning: A Collaboration Between Curriculum and Assessment Developers. Applied Measurement in Education 21(4), 295-314. : Ennis R.H., Weir E., (1985). The Ennis-Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test. Midwest Publications. : Halpern D.F., (2010). Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment. Schuhfried. : Facione P.A., Facione N.C., Giancarlo C.A., (2001). The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory. Insight Assessment. : Pintrich P.R., Smith D.A.F., Garcia T., McKeachie W.J., (1991). A Manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. The feedback and improvement of critical thinking performance
Measuring critical thinking is not an end in itself. It is a means to provide feedback and improvement for one's critical thinking performance. Feedback and improvement are essential for enhancing one's critical thinking skills and dispositions. According to the literature, there are some effective strategies and methods for providing feedback and improvement for critical thinking:
Using rubrics or scoring